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| Non-Rationalised Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 12th) | ||||||||||||||
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Class 12th Chemistry NCERT Notes and Solutions (Non-Rationalised)
1. The Solid State
This chapter explores the **solid state of matter**, focusing on the arrangement and properties of particles in solids. It classifies solids into crystalline and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids are further categorized based on bonding (ionic, covalent, metallic, molecular) and crystal lattices (**unit cells**). Concepts like close packing in 1D, 2D, and 3D, coordination number, and common crystal structures (like FCC, BCC, simple cubic) are discussed. The chapter also covers imperfections or **defects** in solids (point defects, line defects) and their impact on electrical and magnetic properties, explaining concepts like semiconductors and ferroelectricity.
2. Solutions
This chapter deals with **solutions**, which are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances. It covers various ways to express the **concentration** of solutions, including molarity ($\textsf{M}$), molality ($\textsf{m}$), mole fraction ($\chi$), and mass/volume percentages. **Raoult's Law**, describing the vapour pressure of liquid solutions, is central. It explains ideal and non-ideal solutions. The chapter focuses on **colligative properties** – properties dependent only on the number of solute particles – such as relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point ($\Delta \textsf{T}_\text{b}$), depression of freezing point ($\Delta \textsf{T}_\text{f}$), and **osmotic pressure** ($\pi = \textsf{CRT}$). Abnormal molar masses and the **Van't Hoff factor** are also discussed.
3. Electrochemistry
**Electrochemistry** is the study of the relationship between chemical energy and electrical energy. This chapter introduces **electrochemical cells**, where chemical reactions generate electricity (**Galvanic cells**) or electricity drives chemical reactions (**Electrolytic cells**). Concepts like electrode potential, **standard electrode potential** ($E^\circ$), and the **Nernst equation** are used to calculate cell potential. Electrolytic conductivity ($\kappa$), molar conductivity ($\Lambda_\text{m}$), and their variation with concentration are discussed, along with **Kohlrausch's Law** of independent migration of ions. Electrolysis, **Faraday's laws of electrolysis**, different types of batteries (primary, secondary), fuel cells, and the phenomenon of **corrosion** and its prevention are also covered.
4. Chemical Kinetics
**Chemical kinetics** studies the rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them. This chapter defines **reaction rate** (change in concentration per unit time) and discusses how it is affected by concentration, temperature, catalyst, and surface area. The **rate law**, rate constant ($\textsf{k}$), **order of reaction**, and molecularity are introduced. Integrated rate equations for zero, first, and occasionally second-order reactions are derived, along with the concept of **half-life** ($t_{1/2}$). The **collision theory** and the concept of **activation energy** ($E_\text{a}$) are explained to understand reaction mechanisms, leading to the **Arrhenius equation** ($\textsf{k} = \textsf{A}e^{-\textsf{E}_\text{a}/\textsf{RT}}$), which describes the temperature dependence of the rate constant.
5. Surface Chemistry
This chapter explores phenomena occurring at surfaces or interfaces. It discusses **adsorption**, the accumulation of molecular species on the surface rather than in the bulk, distinguishing between physisorption and chemisorption. Factors affecting adsorption and the **Freundlich adsorption isotherm** are covered. **Catalysis**, the process where a substance (catalyst) alters reaction rate without being consumed, is discussed, including homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis and enzyme catalysis. The chapter also introduces **colloids**, heterogeneous mixtures with particle sizes between true solutions and suspensions, describing their classification, preparation, properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis), and uses, including **emulsions**.
6. General Principles And Processes Of Isolation Of Elements
This chapter focuses on the **metallurgy**, the science and technology of extracting metals from their ores and refining them for use. It discusses common occurrences of metals and the various steps involved in the **extraction of elements**: concentration of ore, conversion of concentrated ore into oxide, and reduction of the oxide to metal. Different methods of reduction (e.g., smelting, electrolytic reduction) and refining processes (e.g., distillation, zone refining, electrolytic refining) are explained. The chapter illustrates these principles with the extraction of common metals like Aluminium ($\textsf{Al}$), Iron ($\textsf{Fe}$), Copper ($\textsf{Cu}$), and Zinc ($\textsf{Zn}$), highlighting the chemical reactions and physical processes involved.
7. The P-Block Elements
This chapter provides a detailed study of the chemistry of the **p-block elements** across Groups 15, 16, 17, and 18 of the Periodic Table. It discusses their general electronic configurations, trends in atomic and physical properties, and chemical behaviour. Key topics include the preparation, properties, and uses of important compounds like ammonia ($\textsf{NH}_3$), nitric acid ($\textsf{HNO}_3$), phosphorus allotropes, sulfur (allotropes, sulfuric acid $\textsf{H}_2\textsf{SO}_4$), halogens ($\textsf{F}_2, \textsf{Cl}_2, \textsf{Br}_2, \textsf{I}_2$, interhalogen compounds), and noble gases (e.g., Xenon compounds like $\textsf{XeF}_2, \textsf{XeF}_4$). The anomalous behaviour of the first element in each group is also discussed.
8. The D-And F-Block Elements
This chapter focuses on the properties and chemistry of the **transition elements** (d-block) and **inner transition elements** (f-block), including Lanthanoids and Actinoids. It discusses their electronic configurations, general characteristics like metallic nature, variable oxidation states, formation of **coloured ions**, catalytic properties, and magnetic properties (paramagnetism, diamagnetism, ferromagnetism). The preparation and properties of important compounds like Potassium Permanganate ($\textsf{KMnO}_4$) and Potassium Dichromate ($\textsf{K}_2\textsf{Cr}_2\textsf{O}_7$) are studied. The **Lanthanoid contraction** and its consequences are explained, highlighting the unique chemistry of these groups and their position in the periodic table.
9. Coordination Compounds
This chapter introduces **coordination compounds** or complexes, containing a central metal atom or ion bonded to ligands via coordinate covalent bonds. It discusses **Werner's theory**, defines key terms like coordination number, ligands (monodentate, polydentate), chelation, and oxidation state of the central metal. The **IUPAC nomenclature** system for naming these compounds is covered. Different types of **isomerism** (structural and stereoisomerism) are discussed. Bonding theories, including Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and **Crystal Field Theory (CFT)**, are used to explain their structure, bonding, magnetic properties, and colour. Their importance in biological systems and industry is also highlighted.
10. Haloalkanes And Haloarenes
This chapter deals with organic compounds containing halogen atoms replacing hydrogen atoms in alkanes (**haloalkanes**) and arenes (**haloarenes**). It covers their nomenclature, classification, and methods of preparation (e.g., from alcohols, hydrocarbons). Physical properties (boiling points, solubility) and important **chemical reactions** are discussed. **Nucleophilic substitution reactions** (SN1 and SN2 mechanisms), elimination reactions, and reactions with metals are key for haloalkanes. Preparation and **electrophilic substitution reactions** of haloarenes are explained, highlighting the influence of the halogen group. The chapter also touches upon the uses and environmental effects of some polyhalogen compounds.
11. Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers
This chapter explores the chemistry of organic compounds containing the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) – **alcohols** (in aliphatic compounds) and **phenols** (in aromatic compounds) – and the ether linkage (-O-), **ethers**. It covers their nomenclature, methods of preparation (e.g., from alkenes, carbonyl compounds, alkyl halides), physical properties (influenced by hydrogen bonding in alcohols/phenols), and characteristic chemical reactions. The **acidic nature** of alcohols and phenols, reactions like esterification, oxidation, and dehydration are discussed for alcohols/phenols. Preparation and reactions of ethers, including cleavage reactions, are also studied.
12. Aldehydes, Ketones And Carboxylic Acids
This chapter focuses on organic compounds containing the **carbonyl group** ($\textsf{C=O}$) – **aldehydes** and **ketones** – and the **carboxyl group** ($\textsf{-COOH}$) – **carboxylic acids**. It covers their nomenclature, methods of preparation (e.g., oxidation of alcohols, ozonolysis of alkenes), physical properties, and distinctive chemical reactions. Key reactions include **nucleophilic addition** (characteristic of aldehydes/ketones), oxidation, reduction, **Aldol condensation**, and **Cannizzaro reaction**. The **acidic nature** of carboxylic acids, reactions like esterification, reactions with PCl3, PCl5, SOCl2, and Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction are also discussed. Uses of these compound families are highlighted.
13. Amines
**Amines** are organic compounds derived from ammonia ($\textsf{NH}_3$) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. This chapter covers their nomenclature, classification (primary $1^\circ$, secondary $2^\circ$, tertiary $3^\circ$), and methods of preparation (e.g., reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, Gabriel phthalimide synthesis, Hoffmann bromamide degradation). Their physical properties (like boiling points, solubility) and important chemical reactions are discussed. A key aspect is their **basic nature** ($\textsf{K}_\text{b}$ values) and reactions like alkylation, acylation, reactions with nitrous acid, and the **carbylamine test**. Reactions involving diazonium salts are also introduced, significant in organic synthesis.
14. Biomolecules
This chapter focuses on the essential organic molecules found in living organisms, which are crucial for life processes. It covers the structure and function of the four major classes of **biomolecules**: **Carbohydrates** (monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides like sucrose, polysaccharides like starch, cellulose), **Proteins** (polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, with primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures), **Nucleic Acids** (DNA and RNA, carrying genetic information), and **Lipids**. The chapter also briefly discusses **Enzymes** (biological catalysts), **Vitamins** (essential nutrients), and **Hormones** (chemical messengers), highlighting their diverse roles in biological systems.
15. Polymers
This chapter introduces **polymers**, large macromolecules formed by the repetitive joining of small molecular units called monomers. It covers their classification based on source (natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (**addition** and **condensation polymerization**), and molecular forces (elastomers, fibres, thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics). Different types of polymerization mechanisms are discussed. The structure, properties, and uses of important synthetic polymers like polyethylene, PVC, Teflon, nylon, Bakelite, rubber (natural and synthetic) are explained. Biodegradable polymers and their importance are also mentioned, relevant in environmental context.
16. Chemistry In Everyday Life
This chapter explores the application of chemistry in various aspects of our daily lives. It discusses the chemistry of **drugs**, classifying them based on pharmacological action (e.g., analgesics, antipyretics, antacids, tranquillizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antibiotics). The chemistry of **food** additives like preservatives, artificial sweetening agents, and antioxidants is explained. The chapter also covers **cleansing agents**, detailing the structure and action of soaps and synthetic detergents, highlighting their differences and uses in cleaning. Understanding this helps appreciate how chemical principles are used in common products we interact with daily.